Best Embedded Software Development Companies in 2026
Independent reviews of 33 companies selected for verified delivery track records, technical expertise, and transparent pricing data.
Which Embedded Software Development company is best?
Short answer: the right choice depends on your project size, budget, and specific requirements.
- Best overall: Lemberg Solutions — Owns electrical, firmware, Linux, FPGA, and cloud/edge AI in-house, backed by a certified hardware lab and named semiconductor partnerships
- Best for SIL 4 certified safety-critical systems: SYSGO — Vendor of PikeOS, the first RTOS/hypervisor to achieve SIL 4 safety certification, now backed by Thales Group ownership
- Best for verifiable upstream Linux kernel work: Pengutronix — Directly verifiable upstream Linux kernel contributions (2,500+ changes across 4,000+ files in 2023 alone) — a depth signal that's independently checkable, not marketing copy
- Best for AUTOSAR tooling standardization: Vector Informatik — One of the primary commercial contributors to the AUTOSAR standard, pairing automotive embedded tooling with engineering services at 35+ years of history
- Best for full chip-to-cloud stack coverage: Witekio — Covers the full chip-to-cloud stack — BSP, Android/Linux/RTOS firmware, OTA/security, and Qt/Flutter app layers — under one French team
- Best for Bosch-grade automotive process discipline: Bosch Engineering — Wholly-owned Bosch Group engineering-services subsidiary bringing Bosch's manufacturing-grade process discipline to third-party embedded programs
How do the top Embedded Software Development companies compare?
The table below covers all 33 reviewed companies.
| Company | Best for | Pricing model | Min. engagement | Rating |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions Editor's pick | CTOs needing one team across hardware, firmware, and cloud | Technical consulting, team extension/staff augmentation, and end-to-end product development | Not published | |
| SYSGO Editor's pick | Aerospace, rail, and automotive teams needing SIL 4-certified virtualization | Licensing, engineering services, certification support | Not disclosed | |
| Pengutronix Editor's pick | Teams needing verifiable, upstream-contributing Linux kernel expertise | Consulting, training, engineering services | Not disclosed | |
| DornerWorks Editor's pick | Aerospace and defense programs needing FPGA and hypervisor expertise | Fixed project, time and materials | Not disclosed | |
| Automotive teams standardizing ECU development on AUTOSAR tooling | Tooling licenses, engineering services, consulting | Not disclosed | | |
| Industrial and safety-critical clients needing Linux depth with real team capacity | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Automotive OEMs needing AUTOSAR and ECU software at production scale | Fixed project, licensing, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| OEMs wanting Bosch-grade process discipline for automotive and off-highway embedded systems | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Buyers wanting a publicly-audited RTOS vendor with real-time multi-core expertise | Licensing, engineering services | Not disclosed | | |
| Device makers wanting chip-to-cloud coverage from one European boutique | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| European buyers wanting hardware and firmware under one contract to cut interface risk | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Semiconductor teams needing multi-protocol wireless firmware depth | Fixed project, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Teams needing NXP-based SoM hardware paired with Linux BSP support | Fixed project, hardware + BSP licensing | Not disclosed | | |
| Programs needing long-term embedded Linux security patching and CVE tracking | Engineering services, tooling licenses | Not disclosed | | |
| UK/EU programs needing custom board design plus a design-rescue safety net | Fixed project | Not disclosed | | |
| AWS-committed architectures needing edge firmware and cloud integration co-designed | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Early-stage teams without in-house hardware engineering to manage vendor coordination | Fixed project | Not disclosed | | |
| Connected-product programs wanting hardware, firmware, and app layers from one US vendor | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Global OEM programs needing large-scale software-defined-vehicle engineering | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Enterprises needing automotive embedded engineering alongside media/healthcare R&D | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Nordic and multi-sector programs needing embedded engineering across regulated verticals | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Certifiable aerospace and industrial programs standardizing on VxWorks | Licensing, engineering services, support contracts | Not disclosed | | |
| Aerospace and defense programs needing embedded avionics engineering at scale | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Automotive programs wanting proven multi-brand navigation deployment experience | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Enterprises wanting embedded/IoT work bundled with broader cloud and data engineering | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Enterprises wanting embedded work inside a Hitachi-backed digital engineering partner | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Automotive OEMs needing infotainment and digital cockpit software at DXC scale | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Multi-vertical enterprises needing embedded engineering alongside broader R&D | Fixed project, dedicated team | Not disclosed | | |
| Buyers wanting embedded work bundled with broader software outsourcing capacity | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Enterprises wanting IoT engineering inside a broad digital transformation partner | Fixed project, managed services, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Global enterprises needing embedded work inside a broad engineering consultancy | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Large enterprises needing embedded engineering with public-company governance | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation | Not disclosed | | |
| Global enterprises wanting embedded engineering as part of a massive IT relationship | Fixed project, dedicated team, staff augmentation, managed services | Not disclosed | |
What makes a good Embedded Software Development company?
The evaluation question that actually predicts delivery quality is ownership boundary: does the vendor own hardware and firmware end to end, or does the engagement stop at software and hand hardware questions back to you or a second vendor? A firm that designed the PCB can debug a timing issue that spans a driver and a trace layout in one conversation. A firm that only writes firmware for someone else's board will punt the moment the bug turns out to be electrical, and that handoff — not the initial estimate — is where embedded schedules actually slip. Ask directly where the ownership boundary sits before you scope anything.
Ownership history deserves the same scrutiny as technical capability. A large share of the vendors on this page have been acquired, merged, or rebranded at least once in the past decade — sometimes more than once. That's not disqualifying; several of the strongest specialists here operate as subsidiaries of much larger groups. But a name on a proposal doesn't tell you which legacy team, process, and tooling you'd actually inherit. Ask specifically which pre-acquisition team is staffing your engagement, not just whether the parent company is credible.
Certifications and named partnerships are only worth their face value when tied to shipped work. A firm claiming ISO 26262 alignment or an STMicroelectronics partnership should be able to point to a specific production system that used it — not just list it as a capability alongside a dozen others. The gap between a certification a firm holds and a certification a firm has actually shipped against is exactly where due diligence earns its cost.
What tech stack does each company use?
Short answer: specialists typically cover more tools than generalists. Check each profile for full tech stack details.
| Company | Primary tech stack |
|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions | FreeRTOS, Zephyr, Embedded Linux (Yocto), BuildRoot, OpenWrt |
| SYSGO | PikeOS, ELinOS (embedded Linux), C/C++, Hypervisor/virtualization, DO-178C/IEC 61508-aware development |
| Pengutronix | Embedded Linux (Yocto), Linux kernel development, OpenEmbedded, BSP integration, Long-term maintenance |
| DornerWorks | C/C++, FreeRTOS, Xen hypervisor, FPGA (VHDL/Verilog), Embedded Linux |
| Vector Informatik | AUTOSAR, CAN bus, C/C++, ECU diagnostics tooling, Embedded Linux |
| emlix | Embedded Linux (Yocto), C/C++, Linux kernel development, BSP integration, Long-term maintenance tooling |
| Elektrobit | AUTOSAR, C/C++, Embedded Linux, ISO 26262-aware development, ECU software platforms |
| Bosch Engineering | C/C++, AUTOSAR, Embedded Linux, RTOS, Cloud/edge integration |
| Enea | Enea OSE (RTOS), C/C++, Multi-core/multi-processor systems, Real-time deterministic scheduling |
| Witekio | Embedded Linux (Yocto), Android, FreeRTOS, C/C++, Qt |
| Promwad | C/C++, Embedded Linux (Yocto), Android embedded, FPGA (Verilog/VHDL), PCB design |
| Sirin Software | Zephyr, FreeRTOS, ThreadX, Embedded Linux, Wi-Fi |
| MicroSys Electronics | System-on-Modules (SoM), Embedded Linux, VxWorks, QNX, OS-9 |
| Timesys | Embedded Linux (Yocto), C/C++, Linux kernel security patching, CVE monitoring tooling |
| ByteSnap Design | C/C++, FreeRTOS, Embedded Linux, GStreamer, FPGA (Verilog) |
| Klika Tech | AWS IoT, Embedded C/C++, Edge AI/ML, MQTT, Bluetooth/BLE |
| Integra Sources | C/C++, FreeRTOS, Embedded Linux, Windows/macOS/Android drivers, PCB design (power electronics, FPGA) |
| Softeq Development | C/C++, Embedded Linux, FreeRTOS, PCB design, Mobile/web application development |
| KPIT Technologies | AUTOSAR, C/C++, Embedded Linux, RTOS, ADAS software stacks |
| Tata Elxsi | Embedded Linux, C/C++, Qt, AUTOSAR, ADAS software stacks |
| Data Respons | Embedded Linux, C/C++, RTOS, IoT connectivity protocols, Electrical/PCB design |
| Wind River | VxWorks, C/C++, RTOS, DO-178C-certifiable software, Simulation tooling |
| Cyient | Embedded C/C++, DO-178C-aware development, RTOS, Avionics software stacks |
| Intellias | Embedded Linux, C/C++, Android Automotive, AUTOSAR, Cloud/edge integration |
| N-iX | Embedded Linux, C/C++, AWS IoT, Azure IoT, MQTT |
| GlobalLogic | Embedded Linux, C/C++, Silicon/chip design support, Cloud/edge integration, AUTOSAR |
| Luxoft | Embedded Linux, Android Automotive, C/C++, AUTOSAR, Digital cockpit/HMI frameworks |
| QuEST Global | Embedded C/C++, RTOS, Semiconductor/silicon engineering support |
| Innowise | Embedded Linux, C/C++, AWS IoT, Azure IoT, Bluetooth/BLE |
| Avenga | AWS IoT, Azure IoT, Embedded Linux, C/C++, MQTT |
| Capgemini Engineering | Embedded Linux, C/C++, AUTOSAR, RTOS, Cloud/edge integration |
| LTTS | Embedded Linux (Yocto), FreeRTOS, C/C++, AUTOSAR, AWS IoT |
| HCLTech | Embedded Linux, C/C++, RTOS, Semiconductor engineering support, 5G platform engineering |
How we selected these Embedded Software Development companies
Each company in this list was selected based on verifiable signals, not marketing claims. The criteria used for selection in 2026 are:
- Verified delivery track record: Named case studies or independently confirmed client references in Embedded Software Development projects
- Technical specificity: Demonstrated use of named tools and frameworks; not just generic claims
- Engagement model transparency: At least one public or disclosed engagement model with enough pricing context to plan a project
- Team composition: Evidence of dedicated specialists, not a repositioned generalist team
- Reviews and ratings: Where available, used as a secondary signal alongside editorial assessment
Best Embedded Software Development companies in 2026
Featured profiles for the top-rated companies. Full reviews available for all 33 companies via their profile pages.
1. Lemberg Solutions
Editor's pickFull-stack embedded engineering partner spanning electrical design through cloud and edge AI
Lemberg Solutions is a 200+ person embedded and full-stack engineering firm founded in 2007, headquartered in Lviv, Ukraine, with additional offices in Hamburg, Germany, London, United Kingdom, and Kraków, Poland. For a technical buyer evaluating a delivery partner rather than just a firm to outsource to, the relevant detail is ownership of the whole stack: electrical engineering, bare-metal and RTOS firmware, embedded Linux, FPGA, GUI, connectivity, edge AI, and cybersecurity all sit inside one team, with ISO 9001, ISO 27001, and ISO 13485 certifications backing regulated-industry engagements. Semiconductor partnerships are named and specific — NXP, Microchip, and STMicroelectronics as primary partners — rather than a generic capability list, and named clients (Astronics, Caltech, Speede, Ferno, Cellink, Bosch Rexroth) give a checkable production track record. All IP and source code transfer to the client on delivery.
Advantages
- +Single accountable team across electrical design, firmware, embedded Linux, FPGA, and cloud/edge AI, removing the coordination overhead of a multi-vendor stack
- +ISO 9001, ISO 27001, and ISO 13485 certifications directly support FDA/HIPAA medical, ISO 26262 automotive, and IEC 62443 energy engagements
- +Named semiconductor partnerships (NXP, Microchip, STMicroelectronics) plus a documented in-house lab for board bring-up and hardware validation
Things to consider
- -Does not manufacture at scale — supports development and ongoing maintenance but hands off mass production to the client or a third party
- -Does not carry regulatory certification itself — provides documentation and engineering support, but the client owns the actual approval process
- -No published pricing tiers; scoping requires a direct technical discovery call rather than a self-serve rate card
Best for: CTOs needing one team across hardware, firmware, and cloud
2. SYSGO
Editor's pickThales-owned safety-critical RTOS and hypervisor specialist behind PikeOS
SYSGO, founded in 1991 and headquartered in Klein-Winternheim, Germany, is the vendor behind PikeOS — a real-time operating system and hypervisor that was the first in the world to achieve SIL 4, the highest safety integrity level, and behind ELinOS, an industrial-grade embedded Linux distribution. With roughly 100 employees across subsidiaries in France and the Czech Republic, SYSGO serves aerospace, automotive, railway, and industrial IoT clients building safety-critical applications, and has been part of the Thales Group since 2018 — a defense and aerospace conglomerate whose ownership brings both credibility and a strategic focus that may prioritize Thales-adjacent programs. This is a product-and-services vendor rather than a pure custom-development shop: buyers get a certified platform plus engineering support around it, not bespoke firmware built from a blank slate.
Advantages
- +PikeOS holds SIL 4 certification, the highest safety integrity level — a bar few embedded RTOS vendors have cleared
- +Thales Group ownership (since 2018) brings deep defense and aerospace domain credibility and long-term financial stability
- +Combined RTOS/hypervisor plus industrial-grade embedded Linux (ELinOS) covers both real-time and general-purpose workloads on one certified platform
Things to consider
- -Primarily a certified platform vendor with services attached, not a from-scratch custom firmware development shop — confirm fit if you need bespoke, non-PikeOS-based development
- -Thales Group ownership since 2018 may mean strategic priorities lean toward defense/aerospace accounts over other verticals
- -~100-person team caps capacity for very large, multi-program engagements relative to bigger engineering-services firms
Best for: Aerospace, rail, and automotive teams needing SIL 4-certified virtualization
3. Pengutronix
Editor's pickTiny, extremely deep embedded Linux kernel and Yocto consultancy in Germany
For a technical buyer, the single most checkable fact about Pengutronix is direct, attributable upstream contribution: in 2023 alone, 17 of the company's developers landed roughly 2,500 changes across more than 4,000 files in the mainline Linux kernel — a level of verifiable engagement with the upstream project that almost no embedded consultancy of any size can point to. Founded in 2001 and based in Hildesheim, Germany, the 11-50 person team works specifically at the OS layer: Yocto-based BSP integration, long-term maintenance, kernel development, and consulting. It was one of the first dedicated embedded Linux companies founded in Germany, and more than two decades later remains narrowly focused on that one layer rather than expanding into application-layer GUI work, electrical design, or cloud integration.
Advantages
- +Upstream Linux kernel contributions are independently verifiable (public commit history), not a self-reported claim — rare among embedded consultancies
- +Founded in 2001 as one of the first embedded Linux specialists in Germany, with two decades of unbroken OS-layer focus
- +Narrow scope means genuine depth: clients get kernel-level engineering most generalist firms would have to subcontract
Things to consider
- -Very small team (11-50) — a poor fit if your program needs five parallel workstreams or hardware/PCB design alongside the software
- -Scope stops at the OS layer; application-layer GUI, electrical engineering, and cloud integration are out of scope and need a second vendor
- -No public pricing or minimum engagement figures — budget-constrained teams will need a direct conversation to know if they're a fit
Best for: Teams needing verifiable, upstream-contributing Linux kernel expertise
4. DornerWorks
Editor's pickUS boutique embedded engineering firm specializing in aerospace, defense, and medical
DornerWorks was founded in 2000 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, to bring electronics engineering discipline to aerospace, defense, medical, and industrial clients where reliability isn't negotiable. Over two decades it has grown into what the company describes as one of the larger dedicated embedded engineering design firms in the US by team size, though exact current headcount isn't publicly disclosed. For a technical evaluator, the two most concrete signals are the firm's FPGA practice and its work with the open-source Xen hypervisor — both narrower, harder-to-fake specialties than generic "embedded software development," and both directly relevant to safety-critical systems needing hardware/software co-design and workload isolation. Being US-based also simplifies export-control and ITAR considerations for defense-adjacent programs, which matters more to a procurement team than to a casual buyer.
Advantages
- +FPGA and open-source Xen hypervisor work are specific, checkable specialties rather than generic embedded-software claims
- +Two decades of concentrated focus on aerospace, defense, and medical — domains where reliability requirements are highest and hardest to fake
- +US-based team simplifies export-control and ITAR-sensitive engagements for defense procurement teams
Things to consider
- -Exact current headcount is not published — only described qualitatively as among the larger firms of its type in the US (per company website; independently unverifiable)
- -Domain concentration in aerospace/defense/medical means less demonstrated experience in high-volume consumer electronics manufacturing concerns
- -No public pricing tiers or minimum engagement figures for budget pre-qualification
Best for: Aerospace and defense programs needing FPGA and hypervisor expertise
Dominant automotive embedded tools and AUTOSAR standards vendor from Germany
Founded on April 1, 1988 in Stuttgart, Germany, Vector Informatik built its position as one of the primary commercial forces behind AUTOSAR, the automotive software architecture standard most Tier 1 and OEM embedded teams now build against. The wider Vector Group employs roughly 4,000 people across subsidiaries in Germany and international offices spanning Brazil, China, France, Italy, England, India, Japan, South Korea, Austria, Sweden, and the US. For a CTO evaluating vendors, the key distinction to understand is that Vector is fundamentally a tools-and-standards company with engineering services layered on top — not a custom-firmware shop that starts from a blank page. If your organization is standardizing its ECU development process around AUTOSAR tooling, that's exactly Vector's strength; if you need bespoke embedded software outside that ecosystem, it's a weaker fit.
Advantages
- +Primary commercial contributor to the AUTOSAR standard — direct standards influence most competitors only consume secondhand
- +35+ year focus specifically on automotive embedded tooling and ECU development, not a generalist practice added later
- +International presence across 10+ countries supports globally distributed OEM and Tier 1 supplier programs
Things to consider
- -Fundamentally a tools-and-standards vendor with services attached — teams needing ground-up custom firmware outside the AUTOSAR ecosystem should confirm fit before engaging
- -Automotive-only track record means zero transferable experience for medical, industrial, or consumer embedded programs
- -No published pricing or minimum engagement — tooling licenses and services are typically quoted per engagement
Best for: Automotive teams standardizing ECU development on AUTOSAR tooling
German embedded Linux specialist serving industrial and safety-oriented sectors
emlix has spent more than 20 years since its 2000 founding building embedded Linux systems for German industrial, energy, automation, medical, and safety-technology clients, serving over 350 customers from its Göttingen headquarters (with an additional Munich location) and a team of 60+ engineers. What differentiates emlix from smaller Linux boutiques on this list is scale within specialization: the team is large enough to run concurrent programs across multiple industrial clients while staying entirely focused on the embedded Linux layer, rather than diversifying into electrical design, RTOS-only bare-metal work, or unrelated verticals. For a buyer specifically weighing Linux-layer depth against team capacity, emlix sits between the smallest one-focus boutiques and the generalist engineering conglomerates.
Advantages
- +Over 350 customers served across two decades, with a customer base weighted toward German industrial, energy, and safety-critical sectors
- +60+ engineer team gives more concurrent-program capacity than the smallest boutique embedded Linux specialists
- +Long-term maintenance is an explicit specialty, relevant to industrial clients with multi-decade product support commitments
Things to consider
- -Focus is Linux-only — teams needing bare-metal RTOS-only work or electrical/PCB design will need to pair emlix with a second vendor
- -German-market weighting in its customer base may mean less direct experience navigating non-EU regulatory environments
- -No published pricing tiers — engagement cost requires a direct scoping conversation
Best for: Industrial and safety-critical clients needing Linux depth with real team capacity
Major automotive embedded software vendor owned by Continental
Elektrobit, established in 1988 in Erlangen, Germany, has built embedded and connected software running in more than 600 million vehicles worldwide — a production scale that's a genuine differentiator for OEM procurement teams evaluating vendor track records. Continental acquired Elektrobit as a wholly-owned, independently-operated subsidiary in 2015, and the roughly 1,000-5,000 person team's core work spans ECU software, AUTOSAR platforms, automated driving software, and connected-vehicle/UX software. For a technical buyer, the trade-off is clear: Elektrobit brings Continental's Tier 1 manufacturing scale and automotive-only depth, but the automotive-exclusive focus means there's no transferable track record for medical, industrial, or consumer embedded programs, and the Continental relationship shapes which programs get priority attention.
Advantages
- +Software deployed in over 600 million vehicles — a production track record most automotive embedded vendors can't match
- +Continental's Tier 1 manufacturing and supply-chain scale directly backs Elektrobit's engineering capacity
- +Deep AUTOSAR and ISO 26262-aligned platform expertise built specifically for automotive functional-safety requirements
Things to consider
- -Wholly-owned subsidiary of Continental since 2015 — engagement priorities may be shaped by Continental's broader Tier 1 supplier relationships
- -Automotive-exclusive focus means zero relevant experience for non-automotive embedded programs
- -No public pricing or minimum engagement figures published
Best for: Automotive OEMs needing AUTOSAR and ECU software at production scale
Bosch subsidiary offering automotive and off-highway embedded engineering as a development partner
Bosch Engineering GmbH launched in 1999 with 13 associates and has grown into a roughly 1,950-person development-services subsidiary of Robert Bosch GmbH, headquartered at Bosch's Abstatt development center since 2005 with additional German locations in Holzkirchen, Ingolstadt, Weissach, and Braunschweig plus project offices worldwide. The firm develops embedded electronics and software spanning embedded systems to cloud services for automotive and off-highway (agricultural, construction) mobility applications. For a buyer, the relevant nuance is that this is Bosch's own engineering-services arm serving third-party OEMs and non-automotive mobility clients — it carries Bosch's manufacturing-grade process discipline and component access, but as a wholly-owned Bosch subsidiary, engagements sit inside Bosch's broader commercial relationships rather than operating as a fully independent consultancy.
Advantages
- +Wholly-owned Bosch Group subsidiary brings Bosch-grade manufacturing process discipline and component-sourcing relationships to embedded engagements
- +1,950-person team with 25+ years of history spans embedded systems through cloud services, not firmware in isolation
- +Global project-office footprint (Japan, North America, France, Austria, China, Brazil, UK, Italy) supports internationally distributed OEM programs
Things to consider
- -As a wholly-owned Bosch subsidiary, engagement priorities and component choices may lean toward Bosch's own ecosystem and commercial relationships
- -Automotive and off-highway mobility focus means limited demonstrated experience in medical, consumer, or unrelated industrial verticals
- -No public pricing or minimum engagement figures published
Best for: OEMs wanting Bosch-grade process discipline for automotive and off-highway embedded systems
Publicly-listed Swedish RTOS vendor behind the Enea OSE real-time operating system
Enea, listed on Nasdaq Stockholm and headquartered in Kista, Sweden, traces its roots to 1968 as Engmans Elektronik AB and today employs roughly 650 people building the Enea OSE real-time operating system alongside broader consulting services. Enea OSE targets multi-core and multi-processor systems needing deterministic real-time behavior — used historically in telecom infrastructure, mobile devices, industrial equipment, and medical instruments. For a buyer, the public-company listing is a genuine trust signal (audited financials, public governance) that most private embedded consultancies can't offer, but it also means Enea is primarily a platform/product company with consulting services around it, not a from-scratch bespoke firmware shop.
Advantages
- +Publicly listed on Nasdaq Stockholm — audited financials and public governance most private embedded vendors can't offer
- +Enea OSE has decades of production history in demanding multi-core, multi-processor real-time environments
- +Long operating history (roots to 1968) gives extensive documentation and a mature support ecosystem
Things to consider
- -Primarily a platform/product vendor with consulting attached, not a from-scratch custom firmware development shop
- -650-person team spans multiple product lines, not solely dedicated embedded services capacity
- -No public pricing figures — licensing and services costs require a direct commercial conversation
Best for: Buyers wanting a publicly-audited RTOS vendor with real-time multi-core expertise
Chip-to-cloud embedded software boutique based in Lyon, France
Witekio was founded in 2001 and is headquartered in Lyon, France, with a team in the 51-200 range (reported variously between 164 and 200 depending on the source). The firm positions itself as a chip-to-cloud embedded software provider for device makers, covering embedded systems consulting, BSP/Android/Linux/RTOS/firmware development, OTA and security, and C++ application development (Qt, Flutter) on top of that. For a CTO comparing boutique European embedded shops, Witekio's breadth across the full device-to-cloud chain — rather than a single-layer specialty like a pure Linux or pure RTOS shop — is the distinguishing trait, at the cost of not having one narrow area of maximal depth.
Advantages
- +Full chip-to-cloud coverage — BSP, firmware, connectivity, security, and application layer (Qt/Flutter) — under one team rather than stitched across vendors
- +OTA update and device security are explicit named specialties, directly relevant to connected-product liability concerns
- +20+ years of focused embedded software history since its 2001 founding, with no diversification into unrelated verticals
Things to consider
- -Reported team size varies by source (roughly 150-200), making exact delivery capacity somewhat imprecise
- -Breadth across the full stack trades off against the narrowest possible depth in any single layer compared to single-focus boutiques
- -No public pricing tiers or minimum engagement figures for budget pre-qualification
Best for: Device makers wanting chip-to-cloud coverage from one European boutique
Best Embedded Software Development companies by use case
Short answer: the best company depends on your specific use case. The table below maps common use cases to the most suitable firms in 2026.
| Use case | Recommended company | Why | Min. engagement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Multi-domain hardware programs where coordinating separate electrical, firmware, and cloud vendors has become the bottleneck | Lemberg Solutions | Owns electrical, firmware, Linux, FPGA, and cloud/edge AI in-house, backed by a certified hardware lab and named semiconductor partnerships | Not published |
| Avionics or rail signaling systems requiring SIL 4/DO-178C-certifiable virtualization | SYSGO | Vendor of PikeOS, the first RTOS/hypervisor to achieve SIL 4 safety certification, now backed by Thales Group ownership | Not disclosed |
| Products requiring patches accepted into the mainline Linux kernel rather than a forked, unmaintained tree | Pengutronix | Directly verifiable upstream Linux kernel contributions (2,500+ changes across 4,000+ files in 2023 alone) — a depth signal that's independently checkable, not marketing copy | Not disclosed |
| Avionics or defense systems requiring DO-178C-aware development and FPGA/software co-design | DornerWorks | Narrow, verifiable specialty in FPGA co-design and Xen hypervisor work for aerospace, defense, and medical reliability requirements | Not disclosed |
| OEM or Tier 1 programs standardizing ECU development and diagnostics tooling around AUTOSAR | Vector Informatik | One of the primary commercial contributors to the AUTOSAR standard, pairing automotive embedded tooling with engineering services at 35+ years of history | Not disclosed |
| Industrial machines needing long-term-supported embedded Linux BSPs across multiple concurrent product lines | emlix | Combines 20+ years of embedded Linux specialization with a 60+ engineer team large enough to run concurrent industrial programs | Not disclosed |
| Tier 1 automotive OEM programs needing AUTOSAR-compliant ECU software at production scale | Elektrobit | Software running in 600M+ vehicles at production scale, backed by Continental's Tier 1 manufacturing relationships and standards expertise | Not disclosed |
How to choose a Embedded Software Development company
Short answer: evaluate specialisation depth, technical coverage, delivery ownership model, and engagement model fit before shortlisting vendors.
| Criterion | Why it matters | What to check | Red flag |
|---|---|---|---|
| Specialisation depth | Generalist firms repurposing teams produce slower, lower-quality results | Is Embedded Software Development the firm's core business? What share of team is dedicated? | Practice added recently to a legacy firm with no track record |
| Technical coverage | The right tools depend on your project; vendors should cover multiple options | Which specific tools do they use in production projects? | Locked into one vendor or tool with no flexibility |
| Delivery ownership | Staffing platforms require you to provide direction; delivery firms own outcomes | Is this a fixed-output contract or a time-and-materials team? | Firm presents staffing as delivery without clarifying the distinction |
| Production experience | Building a prototype is different from running a production system | Request case studies showing post-launch monitoring and iteration | Portfolio shows only demos and PoCs, no production systems |
| Engagement model fit | A fixed-price project on an undefined scope will lead to overruns | Does the engagement model match your requirement certainty? | Vendor pushes fixed-price on a poorly defined scope |
Embedded Software Development in 2026: what buyers should know
Treat this roster as three tiers, and pick the tier before you pick a company. Boutique specialists (under 100 people) tend to have the deepest bench in one narrow layer — a kernel shop, a safety-certified RTOS vendor — but limited capacity for five parallel workstreams. Mid-size firms (100–2,000 people) cover more ground per engagement at somewhat shallower depth. Large engineering-services groups (thousands of engineers) can staff almost anything, but embedded work usually runs through a business unit competing internally for people against automotive, aerospace, or telecom accounts with bigger budgets.
A specific, checkable question separates a strong technical evaluation from a generic one: has this vendor shipped the certification or partnership they're claiming, on a system you can name? ISO 26262 alignment, an NXP or STMicroelectronics partnership, or AUTOSAR compliance are all real signals — but only when a vendor can point to a production system that used them. A capability listed alongside a dozen others with no attached case study is a much weaker signal than one company can name and you can go verify.
Minimum engagement size is rarely published in this niche, and that's expected rather than a red flag — embedded scope varies too much by hardware complexity, certification burden, and whether PCB design is in scope to quote a single number upfront. What you should push for on a discovery call is not a headline price, but a concrete answer on team composition: who specifically would be assigned, and have they shipped something comparable before.
Which engagement models does each company offer?
Short answer: most companies offer more than one engagement model. Use this table to filter by your preferred structure.
| Company | Certification support | Consulting | Dedicated team | End-to-end product development | Engineering services | Fixed project | Hardware/BSP licensing | Licensing | Managed services | Staff augmentation | Support contracts | Team extension | Technical consulting | Time and materials | Tooling/licensing | Training |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – |
| SYSGO | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Pengutronix | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ |
| DornerWorks | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – |
| Vector Informatik | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – |
| emlix | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Elektrobit | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Bosch Engineering | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Enea | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Witekio | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Promwad | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Sirin Software | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| MicroSys Electronics | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Timesys | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – |
| ByteSnap Design | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Klika Tech | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Integra Sources | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Softeq Development | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| KPIT Technologies | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Tata Elxsi | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Data Respons | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Wind River | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| Cyient | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Intellias | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| N-iX | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| GlobalLogic | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Luxoft | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| QuEST Global | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Innowise | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Avenga | – | – | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Capgemini Engineering | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| LTTS | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| HCLTech | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Embedded Software Development pricing in 2026
Short answer: pricing varies by hardware complexity, certification requirements, and whether PCB design is in scope. Contact each company directly for project-specific quotes.
| Engagement model | Typical cost range | Timeline | Best for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed project | ~$20K–$150K (firmware-only); $150K–$500K+ with PCB/hardware design | 3–9 months | Well-defined scope, startup or mid-market |
| Retainer | $8K–$40K/month depending on team size | Ongoing | Ongoing iterative work |
| Dedicated team | $15K–$30K/engineer/month, billed per head | 6+ months, often multi-year | Large programmes, capability building |
| Time and materials | $40–$150/hour depending on region and seniority | Variable | Exploratory or undefined-scope work |
Which company has the lowest minimum engagement?
Short answer: check each company's profile for current minimum engagement details. Sorted from lowest to highest below.
| Company | Minimum engagement | Best for at this budget |
|---|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions | Not published | CTOs needing one team across hardware, firmware, and... |
| SYSGO | Not disclosed | Aerospace, rail, and automotive teams needing SIL 4-certified... |
| Pengutronix | Not disclosed | Teams needing verifiable, upstream-contributing Linux kernel expertise. |
| DornerWorks | Not disclosed | Aerospace and defense programs needing FPGA and hypervisor... |
| Vector Informatik | Not disclosed | Automotive teams standardizing ECU development on AUTOSAR tooling. |
| emlix | Not disclosed | Industrial and safety-critical clients needing Linux depth with... |
| Elektrobit | Not disclosed | Automotive OEMs needing AUTOSAR and ECU software at... |
| Bosch Engineering | Not disclosed | OEMs wanting Bosch-grade process discipline for automotive and... |
| Enea | Not disclosed | Buyers wanting a publicly-audited RTOS vendor with real-time... |
| Witekio | Not disclosed | Device makers wanting chip-to-cloud coverage from one European... |
| Promwad | Not disclosed | European buyers wanting hardware and firmware under one... |
| Sirin Software | Not disclosed | Semiconductor teams needing multi-protocol wireless firmware depth. |
| MicroSys Electronics | Not disclosed | Teams needing NXP-based SoM hardware paired with Linux... |
| Timesys | Not disclosed | Programs needing long-term embedded Linux security patching and... |
| ByteSnap Design | Not disclosed | UK/EU programs needing custom board design plus a... |
| Klika Tech | Not disclosed | AWS-committed architectures needing edge firmware and cloud integration... |
| Integra Sources | Not disclosed | Early-stage teams without in-house hardware engineering to manage... |
| Softeq Development | Not disclosed | Connected-product programs wanting hardware, firmware, and app layers... |
| KPIT Technologies | Not disclosed | Global OEM programs needing large-scale software-defined-vehicle engineering. |
| Tata Elxsi | Not disclosed | Enterprises needing automotive embedded engineering alongside media/healthcare R&D. |
| Data Respons | Not disclosed | Nordic and multi-sector programs needing embedded engineering across... |
| Wind River | Not disclosed | Certifiable aerospace and industrial programs standardizing on VxWorks. |
| Cyient | Not disclosed | Aerospace and defense programs needing embedded avionics engineering... |
| Intellias | Not disclosed | Automotive programs wanting proven multi-brand navigation deployment experience. |
| N-iX | Not disclosed | Enterprises wanting embedded/IoT work bundled with broader cloud... |
| GlobalLogic | Not disclosed | Enterprises wanting embedded work inside a Hitachi-backed digital... |
| Luxoft | Not disclosed | Automotive OEMs needing infotainment and digital cockpit software... |
| QuEST Global | Not disclosed | Multi-vertical enterprises needing embedded engineering alongside broader R&D. |
| Innowise | Not disclosed | Buyers wanting embedded work bundled with broader software... |
| Avenga | Not disclosed | Enterprises wanting IoT engineering inside a broad digital... |
| Capgemini Engineering | Not disclosed | Global enterprises needing embedded work inside a broad... |
| LTTS | Not disclosed | Large enterprises needing embedded engineering with public-company governance. |
| HCLTech | Not disclosed | Global enterprises wanting embedded engineering as part of... |
Best Embedded Software Development companies by industry
Short answer: most firms serve multiple industries, but each has a track record that skews toward specific verticals.
| Industry | Recommended company | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Healthcare (FDA/HIPAA) | Lemberg Solutions | Owns electrical, firmware, Linux, FPGA, and cloud/edge AI in-house, backed by a certified hardware lab and named semiconductor partnerships |
| Aerospace | SYSGO | Vendor of PikeOS, the first RTOS/hypervisor to achieve SIL 4 safety certification, now backed by Thales Group ownership |
| Industrial automation | Pengutronix | Directly verifiable upstream Linux kernel contributions (2,500+ changes across 4,000+ files in 2023 alone) — a depth signal that's independently checkable, not marketing copy |
| Aerospace | DornerWorks | Narrow, verifiable specialty in FPGA co-design and Xen hypervisor work for aerospace, defense, and medical reliability requirements |
| Automotive | Vector Informatik | One of the primary commercial contributors to the AUTOSAR standard, pairing automotive embedded tooling with engineering services at 35+ years of history |
| Automotive | emlix | Combines 20+ years of embedded Linux specialization with a 60+ engineer team large enough to run concurrent industrial programs |
Which Embedded Software Development companies serve which industries?
Short answer: most firms cover multiple industries. Use this table to filter by your vertical.
| Company | Automotive | Healthcare | Aerospace | Industrial | Energy | Consumer |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions | ✓ | ✓ | – | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| SYSGO | ✓ | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – |
| Pengutronix | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – |
| DornerWorks | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – |
| Vector Informatik | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| emlix | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – |
| Elektrobit | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| Bosch Engineering | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – |
| Enea | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| Witekio | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| Promwad | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| Sirin Software | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| MicroSys Electronics | ✓ | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – |
| Timesys | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| ByteSnap Design | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| Klika Tech | – | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Integra Sources | – | – | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| Softeq Development | – | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | ✓ |
| KPIT Technologies | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| Tata Elxsi | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – | – |
| Data Respons | ✓ | – | – | – | ✓ | – |
| Wind River | – | – | ✓ | ✓ | – | – |
| Cyient | – | – | ✓ | – | – | – |
| Intellias | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| N-iX | – | ✓ | – | ✓ | ✓ | – |
| GlobalLogic | ✓ | ✓ | – | – | – | – |
| Luxoft | ✓ | – | – | – | – | – |
| QuEST Global | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | – | ✓ | – |
| Innowise | – | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | – |
| Avenga | ✓ | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | – |
| Capgemini Engineering | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | ✓ | – |
| LTTS | ✓ | – | – | ✓ | – | – |
| HCLTech | ✓ | ✓ | – | ✓ | – | – |
Service capabilities by company
Short answer: check this table to confirm a company covers your required capability before shortlisting.
| Company | Service badges |
|---|---|
| Lemberg Solutions | firmware-development, rtos-development, embedded-linux, fpga-programming, electrical-engineering, pcb-hardware-design, iot-connectivity, edge-ai, gui-development, cybersecurity, staff-aug, embedded-consulting |
| SYSGO | rtos-development, embedded-linux, cybersecurity, embedded-consulting |
| Pengutronix | embedded-linux, firmware-development, embedded-consulting |
| DornerWorks | firmware-development, fpga-programming, electrical-engineering, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| Vector Informatik | rtos-development, firmware-development, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| emlix | embedded-linux, firmware-development, cybersecurity, embedded-consulting |
| Elektrobit | firmware-development, rtos-development, embedded-linux, cybersecurity, embedded-consulting |
| Bosch Engineering | firmware-development, rtos-development, electrical-engineering, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| Enea | rtos-development, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| Witekio | firmware-development, embedded-linux, rtos-development, iot-connectivity, cybersecurity, gui-development |
| Promwad | firmware-development, electrical-engineering, pcb-hardware-design, fpga-programming, embedded-linux |
| Sirin Software | firmware-development, rtos-development, iot-connectivity, embedded-linux |
| MicroSys Electronics | embedded-linux, firmware-development, pcb-hardware-design |
| Timesys | embedded-linux, cybersecurity, embedded-consulting, firmware-development |
| ByteSnap Design | firmware-development, electrical-engineering, pcb-hardware-design, fpga-programming |
| Klika Tech | iot-connectivity, edge-ai, firmware-development, embedded-consulting |
| Integra Sources | firmware-development, electrical-engineering, pcb-hardware-design, iot-connectivity, embedded-consulting |
| Softeq Development | firmware-development, pcb-hardware-design, electrical-engineering, embedded-consulting, staff-aug |
| KPIT Technologies | firmware-development, rtos-development, embedded-linux, cybersecurity |
| Tata Elxsi | firmware-development, embedded-linux, gui-development, embedded-consulting |
| Data Respons | firmware-development, embedded-linux, iot-connectivity, electrical-engineering |
| Wind River | rtos-development, firmware-development, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| Cyient | firmware-development, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| Intellias | firmware-development, embedded-linux, staff-aug, embedded-consulting |
| N-iX | iot-connectivity, embedded-linux, staff-aug, embedded-consulting |
| GlobalLogic | firmware-development, embedded-linux, edge-ai, embedded-consulting |
| Luxoft | firmware-development, embedded-linux, gui-development, embedded-consulting |
| QuEST Global | firmware-development, embedded-consulting, electrical-engineering |
| Innowise | firmware-development, iot-connectivity, staff-aug, embedded-consulting |
| Avenga | iot-connectivity, embedded-consulting, staff-aug, cybersecurity |
| Capgemini Engineering | firmware-development, embedded-linux, embedded-consulting, cybersecurity |
| LTTS | firmware-development, embedded-linux, electrical-engineering, iot-connectivity, embedded-consulting |
| HCLTech | firmware-development, embedded-linux, edge-ai, staff-aug |
How this list was compiled
Candidates were sourced from company websites, LinkedIn, Crunchbase, and — where public — official semiconductor and cloud partner directories, not taken at face value from marketing copy. No company paid for inclusion or placement. Founding year, headquarters, and team size were cross-checked against at least one third-party source where possible; where sources genuinely disagreed (a recurring issue for smaller, privately held firms), the discrepancy is stated directly in that company's profile rather than silently resolved.
A firm made the cut only if embedded, firmware, RTOS, embedded Linux, FPGA, or electrical/PCB engineering was a demonstrable core practice — not one line item on a broad services page. Acquisitions, parent-company relationships, and rebrands were treated as disclosure requirements, not disqualifiers: several of the highest-rated firms here operate as subsidiaries of much larger groups, but that ownership history is stated in each profile rather than glossed over.
Ratings are editorial and specific to embedded software delivery suitability for a technical buyer's diligence process — not a rollup of third-party review-site scores, and not a proxy for overall company quality. A large, well-known engineering conglomerate can rate lower here than a 15-person boutique when embedded is a minor line of business for the former and the sole specialization of the latter. Verify all details directly with each company — team composition, pricing, and current ownership structure specifically — before making a procurement decision.
Frequently asked questions
What should a CTO look for in an embedded software development company?
The clearest signal is ownership boundary — does the vendor own electrical design and firmware end to end, or only firmware for hardware someone else designed? A firm that owns both can debug problems that span both domains without a second-vendor handoff. Also confirm named certifications (ISO 26262, ISO 13485) and semiconductor partnerships are tied to production systems the vendor can actually name, not just a capability listed alongside a dozen others.
How much does embedded software development cost?
Fixed-scope firmware-only projects typically run $20K–$150K; adding custom PCB or electrical engineering moves the range to $150K–$500K or more. Dedicated embedded teams are usually billed per engineer per month ($15K–$30K depending on region and seniority), and time-and-materials work runs roughly $40–$150/hour. Certification-heavy domains (medical, automotive, aerospace) push costs toward the top of these ranges because of the added documentation and validation burden.
How do I evaluate an embedded vendor's ownership history before signing?
A meaningful share of firms in this niche have been acquired, merged, or rebranded within the past decade. That's not disqualifying on its own — several strong specialists on this page operate as subsidiaries of larger groups — but ask directly which specific legacy team, process, and personnel would be staffed on your program, rather than assuming continuity from the parent company's brand name alone.
How long does a typical embedded software project take?
A firmware-only project on existing hardware typically runs 3–6 months from kickoff to production-ready release. Projects that include custom PCB design or new silicon bring-up commonly run 6–12 months, since hardware iteration cycles (board spins, component lead times) set the pace regardless of firmware readiness. Certification-driven programs in medical or automotive can extend well past a year once validation and documentation are included.
Which embedded software companies are best for a technical-buyer procurement process?
For a formal RFP process, prioritize vendors with independently verifiable technical signals — named certifications tied to shipped systems, public upstream contributions (as with Pengutronix's Linux kernel work), or a documented safety-integrity certification (as with SYSGO's SIL 4 PikeOS). Those are harder to fabricate on a proposal than generic capability claims, and they give a procurement team something concrete to verify during due diligence.
Compare Embedded Software Development companies
Each comparison page provides a side-by-side analysis of two companies across pricing, tech stack, services, and use case fit. 528 total comparison pages available.
Additional comparisons for all 33 companies are accessible via each profile page.
Alternatives
Looking for alternatives to a specific company? Each alternatives page lists ranked alternatives covering all 33 companies in this review.